Reflection Paper on the Movie the Flowers of War in Relation to Metaphysics and Ethics

Is life after death possible? Are the things beyond our perceptions lie in a factual basis? Moral relativists would say â€Å"whatever is good to you is only good for you, whatever is good to me, is good to me alone†. So if we believe on things like heaven or hell—two places we’ve never been, never saw, hear, touch, smell or taste. No one would say we are wrong, that such place does not exist, because for those of us who believe it does exist, in the mind which can understand and abstract ideas. The Chinese film released last year show evidences of people who believe on things even if it cannot be perceived, some lines in the movie reveal the characters’ strong conviction, they are not therefore skeptic, also different ethics on how they handle death, react on different situations, and how their attitude is affected by the war. â€Å"Don’t do anything foolish. So many people have died. Even hell is packed. Why should you add to the crowd† -Yu Mo If the speaker believes in hell, she probably believe in its opposite too. In terms of metaphysics it is life after death. Even if the person is no longer physically and mentally able to give signs of being conscious, as a part of a religion or belief this particular person still lives on in a place called the after-death world or another part of the universe. â€Å"Father Ingleman, fly away† –George Chen â€Å"I can’t have a priest staring at me while I’m sleeping. † –John Miller The convent boy (George) was saying his last words for Father Ingleman (the dead priest). He was like talking to someone who is actually standing in front of him. They were treating the dead as if it’s still alive, that the priest is looking over them even if it is just a picture. For George on the other hand, he owes the priest his being alive, because he was just an orphan and for him flipping the picture would be like disrespecting the memories of Father Ingleman. A conversation between Shu and his father Mr. Meng, shows how deep love a parent can give his child even at war. Mr. Meng sacrificed himself to the Japanese by joining them even if it is unsafe for him to do so. Shu’s father thinks that through his action he could probably save himself and his daughter. He’d done it for his child, and it pains him that his child cannot see his efforts to save her. Instead of being treated well, his child looked down on his father and regarded him as a traitor, despite the coldness that Shu shows to his father, Mr. Meng still managed to do what a father is expected to do for his child even if it meant putting himself to risk; for risking himself is the least thing that he could do just as to protect and ensure that his child is secured. On burying the convent girls who died when the Japanese attempted to rape them, John Miller hoped that these girls won’t be lonely because he will bury them together. It shows that, he believes that those girls will live together somewhere, and by being together, they can live it happily. In this case, burial of the death will be the last kind thing that happened to them. Being buried formally, is like a solace, a privilege given, because not everyone gets a chance to be have a place to rest in times of war. â€Å"I think I hear what your father is saying right now†¦ I think he’s saying that you’ve done an incredible job taking care of the girls and that you’re good, so good. – John Miller This is when George Chen volunteered himself to fill up the thirteenth girl that needs to attend the â€Å"party†. He unselfishly did it to fulfill his promise to Father Ingleman that he will protect the girls no matter what it takes, even if it means dying or suffering in the hands of the Japanese. Even though the father does not have a physical entity he thinks that the priest is watching over him that’s why he did not broke his promise to the priest even if he is no longer present. Even if Father Ingleman is dead, for George, this promise will make the priest happy. On the first part of the reading by C. J Ducasse he said that when we all accept the fact that we are all going to die in some point of our lives we tend to help our fellows in this journey to make it easier, this act draws us closer and makes us more sympathetic to each other. In the movie, when the convent girls were about to commit suicide, some of the Chinese prostitutes’ unintentionally volunteered themselves to go into the â€Å"party†. After the incident they had a debate on whether they would really go or not. â€Å"They want pleasure. That’s what we do. We have experienced all kinds of men As long as we get out alive. We will find a way to survive. –Yu Mo Even at first they were unsure of their decision because they thought that risking their lives was not worth it, eventually these women have accepted their fate. Even if they know something bad might happen to them they did go anyway, they have sacrificed their lives just to save the purity, innocence and most especially the lives of the convent girls. For them it would be like a trade? their lives which they think is already wasted, over the lives of the convent girls which can be made better, and lives in which they could live on to appreciate and experience all the good the world could offer in the future. Prostitutes never care about a falling nation. They sing and dance while others are dying†¦ we should do something heroic and change the old way of thinking. †-Yu Mo â€Å"Please tell him (John) the studen ts can’t end up in the hands of the Japanese. Otherwise my soldiers would have died for nothing† –Major Li With the heroic deed that they’ve done, the Chinese women and the soldiers realized that even if they could die at least they have done something good and their death would not mean â€Å"nothing†. It is an action that will live forever in the convent girl’s hearts and a memory that once in their lives someone surrendered in exchange of their freedom and they would forever be grateful for they were given a chance to live longer. â€Å"Until this day, I still don’t know what happened to the women of the Qin Huai River, I never learned all their names and never saw them being taken away by the Japanese. So I always imagine†¦ I imagine myself standing by the large round window watching them walk in once again. –Shu For Shu, the women will never be gone, because she didn’t know what exactly happened to them, a part of her is still hoping that they are still and they will never be gone. These women will remain in her heart, because of the one thing they’ve done not only for her but also to her friends. The women of the Qin Huai River never walked out of her life; they just came in and never left even if they can no longer see them. In the fil m, we cannot deny the fact that the Japanese soldiers demonstrated brutality. For them, one shot was not enough to kill people. In those times, their work ethics involves them being violent over enemy and even towards women. They don’t value life anymore, as long as these civilians â€Å"cross† their lines, they are shot. To sum it up, the movie teaches the viewers different lessons. Sometimes, we should not be frightened to the idea of death. Because life comes only once, you should live it fully. Life is about living it. It’s what you do while you are still able. It is also what you can do to help others. For some, the physical entity may perish, but the memories will retain in the hearts of the people you helped, and this is what matters.

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier

Daniel Rutherford Jacobus Henricus Walther Hermann Nernst Reinhold Benesch & Ruth Erica Benesch Find How Oxygen is Transported in Human Body Frederick Soddy Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Louis Jacques Thenard discovers hydrogen peroxide Jbir ibn Hayyn Ya'qub Al-Kindi Paul Karrer Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier Few things are as important as water, which we know is made of oxygen and hydrogen. Did you know that Antoine Lavoisier was the discoverer of both elements? Contributions to Science Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier is one of the most important scientists in the history of chemistry.He discovered elements, formulated a basic law of chemistry and helped create the metric system. During his time, people believed that when an object burns, a mysterious substance called ‘phlogiston’ was released. This was called the ‘phlogiston theory’. Lavoisier’s experiments demonstrated the contrary, i. e. when something burned, it actually absorbed something from the air, ins tead of releasing anything. He later named the ‘something’ from the air as oxygen, when he found that it combined with other chemicals to form acid. (In Greek, ‘oxy’ means sharp, referring to the sharp taste of acids. Henry Cavendish had earlier isolated hydrogen, but he called it inflammable air. Lavoisier showed that this inflammable air burned to form a colourless liquid, which turned out to be water. The Greek word for water is ‘hydro’, so the air that burned to form water was hydrogen! Lavoisier was known for his painstaking attention to detail. Whenever he made a chemical reaction, he weighed all the substances carefully before and after the reaction. He discovered that in a chemical reaction, though substances may change their chemical nature, their total mass remains the same.This is called the law of conservation of mass. His love for accuracy led to the formulation of the metric system of weights and measures – which is still i n use today. Lavoisier’s attention to detail and habit of recording everything is perhaps his most important contribution – for that is now the way science is done. Biography Lavoiser was born on 26 August 1743 in a wealthy Parisian family. He studied at the College Mazarin from 1754 to 1761. His interest in chemistry was developed as he read the works of Etienne Condillac.In 1769, he set about making a geological map of France, which was important for that country’s industrial development. In 1769, he took a government position as a tax collector in the government of King Louis XVI. In 1771, he married Marie-Anne Pierette Paulze, who is considered as an eminent scientist in her own right. She translated the works of many scientists from English and German into French, and later on, with her husband, published the Traite elementaire de chimie, often considered the first comprehensive book on the subject.In 1789, King Louis XVI was overthrown in the French Revolu tion. As Lavoisier had been a tax collector, he earned the wrath of the revolutionaries, who executed him on 8 May 1794. SOURCE: http://humantouchofchemistry. com/antoinelaurent-de-lavoisier. htm Elements and Atoms: Chapter 3 Lavoisier's Elements of Chemistry Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794) has been called the founder of modern chemistry. (View a portrait of Mme. & M. Lavoisier by Jacque-Louis David at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Among his important contributions were the application of the balance and the principle of conservation of mass to chemistry, the explanation of combustion and respiration in terms of combination with oxygen rather than loss of phlogiston (See chapter 5. ), and a reform of chemical nomenclature. His Traite Elementaire de Chimie (1789), from which the present extract is taken in a contemporary translation, was a tremendously influential synthesis of his work. Lavoisier was a public servant as well as a scientist.Under the French monarchy, he was a member of the tax-collecting agency, the Ferme Generale. His work for the government included advocating rational agricultural methods and improving the manufacture of gunpowder. His service to France continued during the Revolution. He was an alternate deputy of the reconvened Estates-General in 1789, and from 1790 served on a commission charged with making weights and measures uniform across France. A Parisian by birth, Lavoisier also died in Paris, guillotined with other former members of the Ferme Generale during the Reign of Terror in May 1794.The preface to his Traite Elementaire de Chimie is a fitting selection to follow Boyle's The Sceptical Chymist because it includes the definition of element that was to dominate chemistry throughout the next century, and which is still familiar in our own day. In addition, Lavoisier's musings on the connection between science and the language which conveys its ideas remain thought-provoking, particularly in light of the writings of Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Alfred Ayer in the first half of the 20th century.Even his comments about the pedagogy of introductory chemistry take sides in a debate that remains current. Antoine Lavoisier, Preface to Elements of Chemistry translation by Robert Kerr (Edinburgh, 1790), pp. xiii-xxxvii When I began the following Work, my only object was to extend and explain more fully the Memoir which I read at the public meeting of the Academy of Science in the month of April 1787, on the necessity of reforming and completing the Nomenclature of Chemistry[1].While engaged in this employment, I perceived, better than I had ever done before, the justice of the following maxims of the Abbe de Condillac[2], in his System of Logic, and some other of his works. â€Å"We think only through the medium of words. –Languages are true analytical methods. –Algebra, which is adapted to its purpose in every species of expression, in the most simple, most exact, and best manner possible, is at the same time a language and an analytical method. –The art of reasoning is nothing more than a language well arranged. † Thus, while I thought myself employed only in forming a Nomenclature, and while I roposed to myself nothing more than to improve the chemical language, my work transformed itself by degrees, without my being able to prevent it, into a treatise upon the Elements of Chemistry. The impossibility of separating the nomenclature of a science from the science itself, is owing to this, that every branch of physical science must consist of three things; the series of facts which are the objects of the science, the ideas which represent these facts, and the words by which these ideas are expressed. Like three impressions of the same seal, the word ought to produce the idea, and the idea to be a picture of the fact.And, as ideas are preserved and communicated by means of words, it necessarily follows that we cannot improve the langua ge of any science without at the same time improving the science itself; neither can we, on the other hand, improve a science, without improving the language or nomenclature which belongs to it. However certain the facts of any science may be, and, however just the ideas we may have formed of these facts, we can only communicate false impressions to others, while we want words by which these may be properly expressed. 3] To those who will consider it with attention, the first part of this treatise will afford frequent proofs of the truth of the above observations. But as, in the conduct of my work, I have been obliged to observe an order of arrangement essentially differing from what has been adopted in any other chemical work yet published, it is proper that I should explain the motives which have led me to do so. It is a maxim universally admitted in geometry, and indeed in every branch of knowledge, that, in the progress of investigation, we should proceed from known facts to wha t is unknown.In early infancy, our ideas spring from our wants; the sensation of want excites the idea of the object by which it is to be gratified. In this manner, from a series of sensations, observations, and analyses, a successive train of ideas arises, so linked together, that an attentive observer may trace back to a certain point the order and connection of the whole sum of human knowledge. When we begin the study of any science, we are in a situation, respecting that science, similar to that of children; and the course by which we have to advance is precisely the same which Nature follows in the formation of their ideas.In a child, the idea is merely an effect produced by a sensation; and, in the same manner, in commencing the study of a physical science, we ought to form no idea but what is a necessary consequence, and immediate effect, of an experiment or observation. [4] Besides, he that enters upon the career of science, is in a less advantageous situation than a child w ho is acquiring his first ideas. To the child, Nature gives various means of rectifying any mistakes he may commit respecting the salutary or hurtful qualities of the objects which surround him.On every occasion his judgments are corrected by experience; want and pain are the necessary consequences arising from false judgment; gratification and pleasure are produced by judging aright. Under such masters, we cannot fail to become well informed; and we soon learn to reason justly, when want and pain are the necessary consequences of a contrary conduct. [5] In the study and practice of the sciences it is quite different; the false judgments we form neither affect our existence nor our welfare; and we are not forced by any physical necessity to correct them.Imagination, on the contrary, which is ever wandering beyond the bounds of truth, joined to self-love and that self-confidence we are so apt to indulge, prompt us to draw conclusions which are not immediately derived from facts; so t hat we become in some measure interested in deceiving ourselves. Hence it is by no means to be wondered, that, in the science of physics in general, men have often made suppositions, instead of forming conclusions.These suppositions, handed down from one age to another, acquire additional weight from the authorities by which they are supported, till at last they are received, even by men of genius, as fundamental truths. The only method of preventing such errors from taking place, and of correcting them when formed, is to restrain and simplify our reasoning as much as possible. This depends entirely upon ourselves, and the neglect of it is the only source of our mistakes. We must trust to nothing but facts: These are presented to us by Nature, and cannot deceive.We ought, in every instance, to submit our reasoning to the test of experiment, and never to search for truth but by the natural road of experiment and observation. Thus mathematicians obtain the solution of a problem by the mere arrangement of data, and by reducing their reasoning to such simple steps, to conclusions so very obvious, as never to lose sight of the evidence which guides them. [6] Thoroughly convinced of these truths, I have imposed upon myself, as a law, never to advance but from what is known to what is unknown; never to form any conclusion which is not an immediate consequence necessarily lowing from observation and experiment; and always to arrange the fact, and the conclusions which are drawn from them, in such an order as shall render it most easy for beginners in the study of chemistry thoroughly to understand them. Hence I have been obliged to depart from the usual order of courses of lectures and of treatises upon chemistry, which always assume the first principles of the science, as known, when the pupil or the reader should never be supposed to know them till they have been explained in subsequent lessons.In almost every instance, these begin by treating of the elements of mat ter, and by explaining the table of affinities[7], without considering, that, in so doing, they must bring the principal phenomena of chemistry into view at the very outset: They make use of terms which have not been defined, and suppose the science to be understood by the very persons they are only beginning to teach. 8] It ought likewise to be considered, that very little of chemistry can be learned in a first course, which is hardly sufficient to make the language of the science familiar to the ears, or the apparatus familiar to the eyes. It is almost impossible to become a chemist in less than three or four years of constant application. These inconveniencies are occasioned not so much by the nature of the subject, as by the method of teaching it; and, to avoid them, I was chiefly induced to adopt a new arrangement of chemistry, which appeared to me more consonant to the order of Nature.I acknowledge, however, that in thus endeavouring to avoid difficulties of one kind, I have f ound myself involved in others of a different species, some of which I have not been able to remove; but I am persuaded, that such as remain do not arise from the nature of the order I have adopted, but are rather consequences of the imperfection under which chemistry still labours.This science still has many chasms, which interrupt the series of facts, and often render it extremely difficult to reconcile them with each other: It has not, like the elements of geometry, the advantage of being a complete science, the parts of which are all closely connected together: Its actual progress, however, is so rapid, and the facts, under the modern doctrine, have assumed so happy an arrangement, that we have ground to hope, even in our own times, to see it approach near to the highest state of perfection of which it is susceptible. 9] The rigorous law from which I have never deviated, of forming no conclusions which are not fully warranted by experiment, and of never supplying the absence of facts, has prevented me from comprehending in this work the branch of chemistry which treats of affinities, although it is perhaps the best calculated of any part of chemistry for being reduced into a completely systematic body.Messrs Geoffroy, Gellert, Bergman, Scheele, De Morveau, Kirwan,[10] and many others, have collected a number of particular facts upon this subject, which only wait for a proper arrangement; but the principal data are still wanting, or, at least, those we have are either not sufficiently defined, or not sufficiently proved, to become the foundation upon which to build so very important a branch of chemistry.This science of affinities, or elective attractions, holds the same place with regard to the other branches of chemistry, as the higher or transcendental geometry does with respect to the simpler and elementary part; and I thought it improper to involve those simple and plain elements, which I flatter myself the greatest part of my readers will easily under stand, in the obscurities and difficulties which still attend that other very useful and necessary branch of chemical science. Perhaps a sentiment of self-love may, without my perceiving it, have given additional force to these reflections.Mr de Morveau is at present engaged in publishing the article Affinity in the Methodical Encyclopedia; and I had more reasons than one to decline entering upon a work in which he is employed. It will, no doubt, be a matter of surprise, that in a treatise upon the elements of chemistry, there should be no chapter on the constituent and elementary parts of matter; but I shall take occasion, in this place, to remark, that the fondness for reducing all the bodies in nature to three or four elements, proceeds from a prejudice which has descended to us from the Greek Philosophers.The notion of four elements, which, by the variety of their proportions, compose all the known substances in nature, is a mere hypothesis, assumed long before the first princip les of experimental philosophy or of chemistry had any existence. In those days, without possessing facts, they framed systems; while we, who have collected facts, seem determined to reject them, when they do not agree with our prejudices.The authority of these fathers of human philosophy still carry great weight, and there is reason to fear that it will even bear hard upon generations yet to come. [11] It is very remarkable, that, notwithstanding of the number of philosophical chemists who have supported the doctrine of the four elements, there is not one who has not been led by the evidence of facts to admit a greater number of elements into their theory.The first chemists that wrote after the revival of letters, considered sulphur and salt as elementary substances entering into the composition of a great number of substances; hence, instead of four, they admitted the existence of six elements. Beccher assumes the existence of three kinds of earth, from the combination of which, i n different proportions, he supposed all the varieties of metallic substances to be produced. Stahl gave a new modification to this system; and succeeding chemists have taken the liberty to make or to imagine changes and additions of a similar nature.All these chemists were carried along by the influence of the genius of the age in which they lived, which contented itself with assertions without proofs; or, at least, often admitted as proofs the slightest degrees of probability, unsupported by that strictly rigorous analysis required by modern philosophy. [12] All that can be said upon the number and nature of elements is, in my opinion, confined to discussions entirely of a metaphysical nature. The subject only furnishes us with indefinite problems, which may be solved in a thousand different ways, not one of which, in all probability, is consistent with nature.I shall therefore only add upon this subject, that if, by the term elements, we mean to express those simple and indivisib le atoms of which matter is composed, it is extremely probable we know nothing at all about them; but, if we apply the term elements, or principles of bodies, to express our idea of the last point which analysis is capable of reaching, we must admit, as elements, all the substances into which we are capable, by any means, to reduce bodies by decomposition. 13] Not that we are entitled to affirm, that these substances we consider as simple may not be compounded of two, or even of a greater number of principles; but, since these principles cannot be separated, or rather since we have not hitherto discovered the means of separating them, they act with regard to us as simple substances, and we ought never to suppose them compounded until experiment and observation has proved them to be so. 14] The foregoing reflections upon the progress of chemical ideas naturally apply to the words by which these ideas are to be expressed. Guided by the work which, in the year 1787, Messrs de Morveau, Berthollet, de Fourcroy, and I composed upon the Nomenclature of Chemistry, I have endeavoured, as much as possible, to denominate simple bodies by simple terms, and I was naturally led to name these first. 15] It will be recollected, that we were obliged to retain that name of any substance by which it had been long known in the world, and that in two cases only we took the liberty of making alterations; first, in the case of those which were but newly discovered, and had not yet obtained names, or at least which had been known but for a short time, and the names of which had not yet received the sanction of the public; and, secondly, when the names which had been adopted, whether by the ancients or the moderns, appeared to us to express evidently false ideas, when they confounded the substances, to which they were applied, with others possessed of different, or perhaps opposite qualities. We made no scruple, in this case, of substituting other names in their room, and the greatest number of these were borrowed from the Greek language. We endeavoured to frame them in such a manner as to express the most general and the most characteristic quality of the substances; and this was attended with the additional advantage both of assisting the memory of beginners, who find it difficult to remember a new word which has no meaning, and of accustoming them early to admit no word without connecting with it some determinate idea. 16] To those bodies which are formed by the union of several simple substances we gave new names, compounded in such a manner as the nature of the substances directed; but, as the number of double combinations is already very considerable, the only method by which we could avoid confusion, was to divide them into classes. In the natural order of ideas, the name of the class or genus is that which expresses a quality common to a great number of individuals: The name of the species, on the contrary, expresses a quality peculiar to certain individ uals only. [17] These distinctions are not, as some may imagine, merely metaphysical, but are established by Nature. A child,† says the Abbe de Condillac, â€Å"is taught to give the name tree to the first one which is pointed out to him. The next one he sees presents the same idea, and he gives it the same name. This he does likewise to a third and a fourth, till at last the word tree, which he first applied to an individual, comes to be employed by him as the name of a class or a genus, an abstract idea, which comprehends all trees in general. But, when he learns that all trees serve not the same purpose, that they do not all produce the same kind of fruit, he will soon learn to distinguish them by specific and particular names. † This is the logic of all the sciences, and is naturally applied of chemistry.The acids, for example, are compounded of two substances, of the order of those which we consider as simple; the one constitutes acidity, and is common to all acids , and, from this substance, the name of the class or the genus ought to be taken; the other is peculiar to each acid, and distinguishes it from the rest, and from this substance is to be taken the name of the species. But, in the greatest number of acids, the two constituent elements, the acidifying principle, and that which it acidifies, may exist in different proportions, constituting all the possible points of equilibrium or of saturation. This is the case in the sulphuric and the sulphurous acids; and these two states of the same acid we have marked by varying the termination of the specific name. Metallic substances which have been exposed to the joint action of the air and of fire, lose their metallic lustre, increase in weight, and assume an earthy appearance.In this state, like the acids, they are compounded of a principle which is common to all, and one which is peculiar to each. In the same way, therefore, we have thought proper to class them under a generic name, derived from the common principle; for which purpose, we adopted the term oxyd; and we distinguish them from each other by the particular name of the metal to which each belongs. [18] Combustible substances, which in acids and metallic oxyds are a specific and particular principle, are capable of becoming, in their turn, common principles of a great number of substances. The sulphurous combinations have been long the only known ones in this kind.Now, however, we know, from the experiments of Messrs Vandermonde, Monge, and Berthollet, that charcoal may be combined with iron, and perhaps with several other metals; and that, from this combination, according to the proportions, may be produced steel, plumbago, &c. [19] We know likewise, from the experiments of M. Pelletier, that phosphorus may be combined with a great number of metallic substances. These different combinations we have classed under generic names taken from the common substance, with a termination which marks this analogy, speci fying them by another name taken from that substance which is proper to each. The nomenclature of bodies compounded of three simple substances was attended with still greater difficulty, not only on account of their number, but, particularly, because we cannot express the nature of their constituent principles without employing more compound names.In the bodies which form this class, such as the neutral salts, for instance, we had to consider, 1st, The acidifying principle, which is common to them all; 2d, The acidifiable principle which constitutes their peculiar acid; 3d, The saline, earthy, or metallic basis, which determines the particular species of salt. Here we derived the name of each class of salts from the name of the acidifiable principle common to all the individuals of that class; and distinguished each species by the name of the saline, earthy, or metallic basis, which is peculiar to it. [20] A salt, though compounded of the same three principles, may, nevertheless, by the mere difference of their proportion, be in three different states.The nomenclature we have adopted would have been defective, had it not expressed these different states; and this we attained chiefly by changes of termination uniformly applied to the same state of the different salts. In short, we have advanced so far, that from the name alone may be instantly found what the combustible substance is which enters into any combination; whether that combustible substance be combined with the acidifying principle, and in what proportion; what is the state of the acid; with what basis it is united; whether the saturation be exact, or whether the acid or the basis be in excess. It may be easily supposed that it was not possible to attain all these different objects without departing, in some instances, from established custom, and adopting terms which at first sight will appear uncouth and barbarous.But we considered that the ear is soon habituated to new words, especially when they are connected with a general and rational system. The names, besides, which were formerly employed, such as powder of algaroth, salt of alembroth, pompholix, phagadenic water, turbith mineral, colcothar, and many others, were neither less barbarous nor less uncommon. [21] It required a great deal of practice, and no small degree of memory, to recollect the substances to which they were applied, much more to recollect the genus of combination to which they belonged. The names of oil of tartar per deliquium, oil of vitriol, butter of arsenic and of antimony, flowers of zinc, &c. ere still more improper, because they suggested false ideas: For, in the whole mineral kingdom, and particularly in the metallic class, there exists no such thing as butters, oils, or flowers; and, in short, the substances to which they give these fallacious names, are nothing less than rank poisons. [22] When we published our essay on the nomenclature of chemistry, we were reproached for having changed the la nguage which was spoken by our masters, which they distinguished by their authority, and handed down to us. But those who reproach us on this account, have forgotten that it was Bergman and Macquer themselves who urged us to make this reformation. In a letter which the learned Professor of Upsal, M. Bergman, wrote, a short time before he died, to M. de Morveau, he bids him spare no improper names; those who are learned, will always be learned, and those who are ignorant will thus learn sooner. 23] There is an objection to the work which I am going to present to the public, which is perhaps better founded, that I have given no account of the opinion of those who have gone before me; that I have stated only my own opinion, without examining that of others. By this I have been prevented from doing that justice to my associates, and more especially to foreign chemists, which I wished to render them. But I beseech the reader to consider, that, if I had filled an elementary work with a mu ltitude of quotations; if I had allowed myself to enter into long dissertations on the history of the science, and the works of those who have studied it, I must have lost sight of the true object I had in view, and produced a work, the reading of which must have been extremely tiresome to beginners.It is not to the history of the science, or of the human mind, that we are to attend in an elementary treatise:[24] Our only aim ought to be ease and perspicuity, and with the utmost care to keep every thing out of view which might draw aside the attention of the student; it is a road which we should be continually rendering more smooth, and from which we should endeavour to remove every obstacle which can occasion delay. The sciences, from their own nature, present a sufficient number of difficulties, though we add not those which are foreign to them. But, besides this, chemists will easily perceive, that, in the fist part of my work, I make very little use of any experiments but those which were made by myself: If at any time I have adopted, without acknowledgment, the experiments or the opinions of M. Berthollet, M. Fourcroy, M. de la Place, M.Monge, or, in general, of any of those whose principles are the same with my own, it is owing to the circumstance, that frequent intercourse, and the habit of communicating our ideas, our observations, and our way of thinking to each other, has established between us a sort of community of opinions, in which it is often difficult for every one to know his own. [25] The remarks I have made on the order which I thought myself obliged to follow in the arrangement of proofs and ideas, are to be applied only to the first part of this work. It is the only one which contains the general sum of the doctrine I have adopted, and to which I wished to give a form completely elementary. 26] The second part is composed chiefly of tables of the nomenclature of the neutral salts. To these I have only added general explanations, the object of which was to point out the most simple processes for obtaining the different kinds of known acids. This part contains nothing which I can call my own, and presents only a very short abridgment of the results of these processes, extracted from the works of different authors. In the third part, I have given a description, in detail, of all the operations connected with modern chemistry. I have long thought that a work of this kind was much wanted, and I am convinced it will not be without use.The method of performing experiments, and particularly those of modern chemistry, is not so generally known as it ought to be; and had I, in the different memoirs which I have presented to the Academy, been more particular in the detail of the manipulations of my experiments, it is probable I should have made myself better understood, and the science might have made a more rapid progress. The order of the different matters contained in this third part appeared to me to be almost arbitrary; an d the only one I have observed was to class together, in each of the chapters of which it is composed, those operations which are most connected with one another. I need hardly mention that this part could not be borrowed from any other work, and that, in the principal articles it contains, I could not derive assistance from any thing but the experiments which I have made myself.I shall conclude this preface by transcribing, literally, some observations of the Abbe de Condillac, which I think describe, with a good deal of truth, the state of chemistry at a period not far distant from our own. These observations were made on a different subject; but they will not, on this account, have less force, if the application of them be thought just. [27] â€Å"Instead of applying observation to the things we wished to know, we have chosen rather to imagine them. Advancing from one ill founded supposition to another, we have at last bewildered ourselves amidst a multitude of errors. These err ors becoming prejudices, are, of course, adopted as principles, and we thus bewilder ourselves more and more. The method, too, by which we conduct our reasonings is as absurd; we abuse words which we do not understand, and call this the art of reasoning.When matters have been brought this length, when errors have been thus accumulated, there is but one remedy by which order can be restored to the faculty of thinking; this is, to forget all that we have learned, to trace back our ideas to their source, to follow the train in which they rise, and, as my Lord Bacon says, to frame the human understanding anew. â€Å"This remedy becomes the more difficult in proportion as we think ourselves more learned. Might it not be thought that works which treated of the sciences with the utmost perspicuity, with great precision and order, must be understood by every body? The fact is, those who have never studied any thing will understand them better than those who have studied a great deal, and e specially those who have written a great deal. At the end of the fifth chapter, the Abbe de Condillac adds: â€Å"But, after all, the sciences have made progress, because philosophers have applied themselves with more attention to observe, and have communicated to their language that precision and accuracy which they have employed in their observations: In correcting their language they reason better. † Antoine Lavoisier, Table of Simple Substances in Elements of Chemistry translation by Robert Kerr (Edinburgh, 1790), pp. 175-6 Simple substances belonging to all the kingdoms of nature, which may be considered as the elements of bodies. New Names. | Correspondent old Names. | Light[28]| Light. | Caloric| Heat. | | Principle or element of heat. | | Fire. Igneous fluid. | Matter of fire and of heat. | Oxygen[29]| Depholgisticated air. | | Empyreal air. | | Vital air, or | | Base of vital air. | Azote[30]| Phlogisticated air or gas. | | Mephitis, or its base. | Hydrogen[31]| Infl ammable air or gas, | | or the base of inflammable air. | Oxydable[32] and Acidifiable simple Substances not Metallic. New Names. | Correspondent old names. | Sulphur| The same names. | Phosphorus | | Charcoal | | Muriatic radical[33]| Still unknown. | Fluoric radical | | Boracic radical| | Oxydable and Acidifiable simple Metallic Bodies. New Names. | Correspondent Old Names. | Antimony| Regulus[34] of| Antimony. | Arsenic| † â€Å"| Arsenic |Bismuth| † â€Å"| Bismuth | Cobalt| † â€Å"| Cobalt | Copper| † â€Å"| Copper | Gold| † â€Å"| Gold | Iron| † â€Å"| Iron | Lead| † â€Å"| Lead | Manganese| † â€Å"| Manganese | Mercury| † â€Å"| Mercury | Molybdena[35]| † â€Å"| Molybdena | Nickel| † â€Å"| Nickel | Platina| † â€Å"| Platina | Silver| † â€Å"| Silver | Tin| † â€Å"| Tin | Tungstein[36]| † â€Å"| Tungstein | Zinc| † â€Å"| Zinc| Salifiable simple Earthy Substances[37] New Names. | Correspondent Old Names. | Lime| Chalk, calcareous earth. | | Quicklime. | Magnesia| Magnesia, base of Epsom salt. | | Calcined or caustic magnesia. | Barytes| Barytes, or heavy earth. | Argill| Clay, earth of alum. | Silex| Siliceous or vitrifiable earth. |Notes [1]Lavoisier read â€Å"Methode de Nomenclature Chimique† before the French Academy on 18 April 1787. This outline for a reformulation of chemical nomenclature was prepared by Lavoisier and three of his early converts to the oxygen theory of combustion, Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude Louis Berthollet, and Antoine Francois de Fourcroy. De Morveau had already argued for a reformed nomenclature, and he developed the April 1787 outline in a memoir read to the Academy on 2 May 1787. [Leicester & Klickstein 1952] [2]Etienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780) was a French philosopher and associate of Rousseau, Diderot, and the Encyclopedists.His La Logique (1780) stressed the importance of language as a tool in scientific and logical reasoning. [3]Lavoisier makes an excellent point, but he overstates it. Clearly ones ideas are not strictly limited or determined by one's language. New ideas must exist before new terms can be coined to express those ideas; thus new ideas can be formed and even to some extent described under the sway of older language. Also, new terms can only be defined by reference to pre-existing terms. Sometimes new terms are not necessary, as old terms absorb new meanings. For example, I hope that the selections in this book show to some extent how the terms â€Å"atom† and â€Å"element† have changed in meaning over time.Having made these points, I do not wish to minimize the ability of new terminology to help the mind to run along the path of new insights, or to prevent it from falling into old misconceptions. [4]Note that Lavoisier does not say merely that we ought not believe any idea but what follows immediately and necessarily f rom experiment, we ought not even form the idea. This statement shows a wariness of hypotheses common to many early scientists and natural philosophers. Compare Newton's, â€Å"I frame no hypotheses; for †¦ hypotheses †¦ have no place in experimental philosophy. † [in Bartlett 1980] Hypotheses had no part in the empirical methodology of Francis Bacon (1561-1626; see portrait at National Portrait Gallery, London), which emphasized collection and classification of facts. This aversion to hypotheses is too not urprising if one considers that empiricists were attempting to distance themselves from rationalism. Later formulations of the scientific method, however, acknowledge the utility of hypotheses, always treated as provisional, in both suggesting experiments and interpreting them. [5]Lavoisier was not the last to observe that children are born scientists who learn by experience. [6]Lavoisier's choice of mathematics as an example may strike a modern reader as odd. Wh ile mathematics has long served as an example of the kind of certainty to which scientists aspire (â€Å"mathematical certainty†), it is now seen as based on axioms, not empirically based.Such mathematical systems as non-Euclidean geometry, which seemed to disagree with observed reality, had not yet been constructed at the time of Lavoisier's writing, though. [7]A table of affinities was a summary of a great deal of information on chemical reactions. It lists what substances react chemically with a given substance, often in order of the vigor or extent of the reaction. (If substance A reacted more strongly than substance B with a given material, then substance A was said to have a greater affinity than B for that material. ) View a table of affinities by Etienne-Francois Geoffroy (1672-1731). [8]In Lavoisier's mind, it makes no sense to jump to this summary table without first describing the various substances and their characteristic reactions.The proper role of descriptive chemistry in the chemical curriculum continues to be a topic of debate in chemical education. Apparently Lavoisier would be quite sympathetic to the charge that introductory courses emphasize unifying principles at the expense of descriptive chemistry. [9]This is certainly an optimistic statement! Two hundred years later chemistry has developed to an extent Lavoisier could not have imagined, yet it is a rare and foolish chemist who expects the science to exhaust its possibilities for discovery within a lifetime. [10]Bergman, Scheele, De Morveau, and Kirwan were all contemporaries of Lavoisier. The Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele had a hand in the discovery of oxygen, chlorine, and manganese.The Swedish chemist and mineralogist Torbern Bergman made contributions to analytical chemistry and the classification of minerals. Richard Kirwan was an Irish chemist and a defender of the phlogiston theory. [11]The influence of the ancients was on the decline when Lavoisier wrote these wor ds, but he does not exaggerate the importance of their thought. Remember that he is still concerned about their influence more than a century after The Sceptical Chymist and more than two millennia after the death of Aristotle. (See chapters 1 and 2. ) The simplicity of ancient ideas of matter would continue to have an influence on chemists well after Lavoisier's time, particularly as the number of chemical elements grew. (See chapter 10. [12]Johann Joachim Becher (1635-1682) and Georg Ernst Stahl (1660-1734) were the two men most closely associated with the phlogiston theory. Lavoisier was largely responsible for dislodging and discrediting the notion that combustion and respiration involved a loss of a subtle material called phlogiston. (See chapter 5. ) Lavoisier makes light of their ideas here, but the theory, though incorrect, was not as nonsensical as it may now appear. [13]Notice the pragmatism of Lavoisier's approach: he suggests, in essence, forgetting about the ultimate bu ilding blocks of matter. This was a prudent recommendation, for he had no way of addressing that subject empirically (which is why he dismisses it as metaphysical).He continues by suggesting that chemists turn their attention to what they can observe empirically, the ultimate products of chemical analysis. The definition of an element as a body which cannot be broken down further by chemical analysis is an operational one: as the techniques of chemical analysis improved, then substances scientists had any right to regard as elements could change. At first, this definition of element appears to be similar to that of Boyle. (See chapter 2, note 9. ) However, Boyle seemed not to consider elementary substances which were not components of all compound matter. [14]Lavoisier's table of simple bodies, reproduced below the preface, follows this prescription approximately, but not exactly. See note 33 below. ) [15]See note 34 below on names of metals. [16]Thus, where possible the name of a c hemical substance should not simply be an arbitrary word, but should give some information about the substance. This principle is particularly evident in the modern systematic nomenclature of organic compounds: the name enables one who knows the rules of nomenclature and some organic chemistry to draw the structural formula of a compound from its name. (See IUPAC 1979, 1993. ) The principle is also evident in the nomenclature of inorganic compounds [IUPAC 1971], the class of compounds Lavoisier's nomenclature primarily addresses. It is least vident in modern names of the elements, many of which are named after important scientists (e. g. curium, mendelevium, rutherfordium) or places important to the discoverers (e. g. polonium). (See Ringnes 1989 for etymology of elements' names. ) Ironically, Lavoisier coined the name for an element central to his contributions to chemistry, a name of Greek origin chosen to convey information about the element which turned out to be incorrect. The name â€Å"oxygen† means â€Å"acid former,† for Lavoisier believed that oxygen was a component of all acids. [17]Already we see the close connection Lavoisier envisioned between the language of chemistry and the content of the science.The system of naming compounds depends on classifying those compounds. Compounds belonging to the same class would have similar names. The name would also reflect the chemical composition of the substance. [18]So the classes of compounds included acids, oxides, sulfides, and the like. To specify which acid, a particular name was added, e. g. nitrous acid. Different suffixes distinguished between similar particular names (such as sulfuric and sulfurous–the -ic suffix applying to the more highly oxidized form). [19]What Lavoisier has in mind is a class of materials now called carbides, inorganic compounds of a metal and carbon (â€Å"charcoal†). But the examples he gives are not carbides.Steel is an alloy (a mixture or soluti on of metals, and therefore not a chemical compound of definite proportions); in particular, steel is principally iron with some carbon and sometimes other metals (such as chromium or manganese). Although plumbago has been used to refer to a variety of lead-containing substances (as might be guessed from the root plumb-), it also (as here) refers to the substance now called graphite, the form of carbon commonly used for pencil â€Å"leads. † [20]Again in the case of salts we see the nomenclature embodying the principles of the chemical theory of the day. A salt was seen as a compound of an acid and a base, and an acid itself a compound of an acidifiable part and an acidifying part.The acidifying part, whatever its nature, was believed to be common to all acids; since it would not distinguish one salt from another, it does not appear in the name of the salt. The salts, then, carry the name of the acidifiable piece and the base with which it combines. [21]Pompholix was a crude (i. e. , not very pure) zinc oxide (ZnO), sometimes known by the more pleasant but hardly more informative name flowers of zinc. Phagadenic water was a corrosive liquid used to cleanse ulcers; phagadenic refers to a spreading or â€Å"eating† ulcer. Colcothar is a brownish-red mixture containing primarily ferric oxide (Fe2O3) with some calcium sulfate (CaSO4). [Oxford 1971] [22]Oil of vitriol is sulfuric acid, a viscous liquid.Butter of arsenic (arsenic trichloride) is an oily liquid; and butter of antimony (antimony trichloride) is a colorless deliquescent solid. In one sense, these names are informative, for they suggest the physical appearance of the substances they name; they are, however, also misleading in the sense Lavoisier points out. [23]Lavoisier recognizes that even the most rationally designed nomenclature would be useless if chemists chose not to use it. A language is one of the most visible signs of a people and culture; naturally, efforts to tamper with it can meet with disapproval. Thus Lavoisier pays at least nominal attention to aesthetic and cultural considerations, noting just above that the new terms sound no more â€Å"barbarous† than some technical terms then in existence.In a similar vein, he makes a concession to linguistic conservatism still further above, where he indicates that he does not propose to displace familiar names, at least for elements. And here he concedes that one ought not lightly to tamper with language, but that in doing so he is responding to a need and a demand. [24]Chemistry curricula in general devote little time to the history of the science, and that little usually consists of anecdotes scattered among other material. Discoverers of laws and elements may be mentioned; the pathways of discovery, however, let alone false steps on those pathways, almost never are. (See, however, Giunta 2001. In my opinion, the teaching of scientific process (as opposed to content) suffers as a result. The emphasis o n current content to the exclusion of historical material, however, itself has a long history and such distinguished advocates as Lavoisier. [25]The standards for crediting others for their ideas, particularly when they are similar to one's own, were not as stringent in Lavoisier's time as in our own. And yet Lavoisier was criticized even by contemporaries for failing to give what they believed to be sufficient credit. For instance, Joseph Priestley did not believe Lavoisier gave him sufficient credit for the discovery of â€Å"dephlogisticated air† (oxygen) when he described his own similar experiments [Conant 1957].And Lavoisier's failure to credit James Watt and Henry Cavendish for their insights into the compound nature of water were a part of the sometimes rancorous â€Å"water controversy† [Ihde 1964]. See chapters 4 and 6 for articles on these subjects. [26]The first part of the treatise deals with gases, caloric, and the combustion of elements, so it truly cont ains the work most closely associated with Lavoisier. [27]Indeed, these words, which advocate empirical observation over rationalism as the source of reliable knowledge, apply to any science. [28]Light and caloric are not found on modern tables of elements because they are even matter, let alone elements of material bodies.Although a wave theory of light had been proposed by this time (by Christiaan Huygens), Newton's corpuscular (particle) theory was widely accepted until the 19th century. Similarly, until the 19th century, heat was widely believed to be a material, a fluid which flowed out of hot bodies and into cold ones (even though mechanical theories of heat with a Newtonian pedigree also existed at this time). See chapter 5, note 17 for a description of Lavoisier's thinking about heat and fire. ) [29]As mentioned above, the name oxygen means â€Å"acid former,† for Lavoisier believed (incorrectly) that oxygen was a component of all acids. Oxygen was a relatively recent ly discovered substance, and it did not have a standard name.The various names used for it are descriptive, but clumsy. â€Å"Dephlogisticated air† is particularly objectionable, for it described oxygen in terms of the phlogistion theory, which Lavoisier was in the process discrediting. [30]The name azote and the current name nitrogen were both used in English from the time of Lavoisier into the 19th century. Azote means â€Å"lifeless,† for breathing nitrogen does not sustain life. [31]Hydrogen means â€Å"water former,† for water results from the burning of hydrogen. (See chapter 6. ) Hydrogen was one of several gases discovered in the 18th century. The names then in use for it were informative, denoting its flammability. [32]I. e. substances which can be oxidized (combined with oxygen). [33]These three radicals or â€Å"roots† had not yet been isolated or properly characterized. The fluoric radical, now called fluorine, is the root of fluorspar and oth er fluorine-containing minerals. Fluorine is very difficult to separate from its compounds, and is a very reactive and dangerous gas in its elemental form. This gas was not isolated until 1886. The boracic radical, now called boron, is the root of the mineral borax (Na2B4O7); boron was not isolated until 1808. [Weeks & Leicester, 1968] Muriatic acid was the name then in use for what we call hydrochloric acid or hydrogen chloride, HCl.Chlorine, the element which distinguishes this acid from others, was discovered by Carl Wilhelm Scheele; however, he named it oxymuriatic acid, believing it to be a compound containing oxygen. Muriatic radical, then, was the name for the hypothetical element believed to be combined with oxygen in oxymuriatic acid. Muriatic, by the way, means â€Å"pertaining to †¦ brine or salt† [Oxford 1971]; the salt of muriatic acid is common table salt, sodium chloride (NaCl). Lavoisier had good reason to expect that these radicals would be isolated, for their compounds had been known for a long time; however, the fluoric and boracic radicals were, strictly speaking, hypothetical substances at this time, and the basis of muriatic acid had already been isolated but he did not recognize it as elementary.Had he kept strictly to the principle of considering a substance an element if it could not be further decomposed, then Lavoisier should also have included â€Å"oxymuriatic acid† (undoubtedly by a different name) among the elements; as it was, chlorine was named and recognized to be elementary only in 1810 [Davy 1810, 1811]. Although we can see, with hindsight, that Lavoisier was incorrect, it was by no means obvious at the time. Chlorine had been prepared from reactions with substances that do contain oxygen, for example from pyrolusite (MnO2) in Scheele's original isolation and from aqueous muriatic acid (HCl). [34]Until the phlogiston theory was discarded, metals were commonly regarded as compounds of their minerals ( "earths†) and phlogiston. This idea was incorrect, but it seemed to make sense, for the earths or ores seemed to be more fundamental than the metals.After all, the earths were found readily in nature, but to obtain the metals one had to heat the earths strongly in the presence of charcoal. In any event, the metal came to be known as the regulus of the mineral; for example, the name antimony was originally applied to an antimony sulfide, Sb2S3, and the metal was called regulus of antimony. Lavoisier drops the term regulus, giving the simple body (the metal) the simple, unmodified term. [35]The element is now known as molybdenum. Similarly Lavoisier's platina is now called platinum. The ending is important: the -um ending now denotes a metal, while the -a ending denotes an oxide of that metal. [36]Now tungsten. [37]All of these â€Å"earthy substances† proved to be compounds.Their elements were first isolated in the early 19th century. Of course, Lavoisier was justified i n including them among his elements, for none of them had yet been broken down into anything simpler. Two interesting omissions from this table are soda and potash, comounds of sodium and potassium known since antiquity but whose elementary metals had not yet been extracted. One might have expected Lavoisier to list such substances either here or with the hypothesized radicals (note 33). Chalk frequently refered to calcium carbonate (CaCO3), but apparently it was also used for calcium oxide [Oxford 1971]. Magnesia is magnesium oxide, MgO. (See note 35. Epsom salt is magnesium sulfate, MgSO4, so named for the location (an English town) of a mineral spring from which the salt was obtained. Barytes is barium oxide, BaO. Argill or argil is an aluminum-containing potters' clay. Alum is a transparent aluminum-containing mineral, AlK(SO4)2. 12H2O. Humphry Davy was the first to isolate calcium, magnesium, barium, [Davy 1808b] sodium, and potassium [Davy 1808a]; he was also a co-discoverer o f boron [Davy 1809] and he recognized chlorine to be an element (note 34). Vitrifiable means able to be made into glass; indeed, common glass is mainly silicon dioxide. [Weeks & Leicester 1968] Source: http://web. lemoyne. edu/~giunta/ea/lavprefann. html Antoine-Laurent LavoisierAntoine-Laurent Lavoisier. Line engraving by Louis Jean Desire Delaistre, after a design by Julien Leopold Boilly. Courtesy Blocker History of Medicine Collections, Moody Medical Library, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas. The son of a wealthy Parisian lawyer, Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743–1794) completed a law degree in accordance with family wishes. His real interest, however, was in science, which he pursued with passion while leading a full public life. On the basis of his earliest scientific work, mostly in geology, he was elected in 1768—at the early age of 25—to the Academy of Sciences, France’s most elite scientific society.In the same year he bought i nto the Ferme Generale, the private corporation that collected taxes for the Crown on a profit-and-loss basis. A few years later he married the daughter of another tax farmer, Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, who was not quite 14 at the time. Madame Lavoisier prepared herself to be her husband’s scientific collaborator by learning English to translate the work of British chemists like Joseph Priestley and by studying art and engraving to illustrate Antoine-Laurent’s scientific experiments. In 1775 Lavoisier was appointed a commissioner of the Royal Gunpowder and Saltpeter Administration and took up residence in the Paris Arsenal.There he equipped a fine laboratory, which attracted young chemists from all over Europe to learn about the â€Å"Chemical Revolution† then in progress. He meanwhile succeeded in producing more and better gunpowder by increasing the supply and ensuring the purity of the constituents—saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulfur, and charcoalà ¢â‚¬â€as well as by improving the methods of granulating the powder. Characteristic of Lavoisier’s chemistry was his systematic determination of the weights of reagents and products involved in chemical reactions, including the gaseous components, and his underlying belief that matter—identified by weight—would be conserved through any reaction (the law of conservation of mass).Among his contributions to chemistry associated with this method were the understanding of combustion and respiration as caused by chemical reactions with the part of the air (as discovered by Priestley) that he named â€Å"oxygen,† and his definitive proof by composition and decomposition that water is made up of oxygen and hydrogen. His giving new names to substances—most of which are still used today—was an important means of forwarding the Chemical Revolution, because these terms expressed the theory behind them. In the case of oxygen, from the Greek meaning â₠¬Å"acid-former,† Lavoisier expressed his theory that oxygen was the acidifying principle. He considered 33 substances as elements—by his definition, substances that chemical analyses had failed to break down into simpler entities.Ironically, considering his opposition to phlogiston (see Priestley), among these substances was caloric, the unweighable substance of heat, and possibly light, that caused other substances to expand when it was added to them. To propagate his ideas, in 1789 he published a textbook, Traite Elementaire de chimie, and began a journal, Annales de Chimie, which carried research reports about the new chemistry almost exclusively. Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier conducts an experiment on human respiration in this drawing made by his wife, who depicted herself at the table on the far right. Courtesy Edgar Fahs Smith Memorial Collection, Department of Special Collections, University of Pennsylvania Library.A political and social liberal, Lavoisier took an ac tive part in the events leading to the French Revolution, and in its early years he drew up plans and reports advocating many reforms, including the establishment of the metric system of weights and measures. Despite his eminence and his services to science and France, he came under attack as a former farmer-general of taxes and was guillotined in 1794. A noted mathematician, Joseph-Louis Lagrange, remarked of this event, â€Å"It took them only an instant to cut off that head, and a hundred years may not produce another like it. † Source: http://www. chemheritage. org/discover/online-resources/chemistry-in-history/themes/early-chemistry-and-gases/lavoisier. aspx Others: http://preparatorychemistry. com/Bishop_nomenclature_help. htm

Strategies for successful writing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Strategies for successful writing - Essay Example That being the Uniform Commercial Code's Section 2 on Sales. I needed to mention this because a sales contract covers many aspects of law, and are governed by different laws. As a contract, it must be governed and validly enforced under the provisions of contract law. First, the chart on slide 2 is indeed based on Exhibit 10.1, page 244 of the textbook, and states elements of a contract. This is slightly inaccurate, since the chart shows the essence of a contract and the steps for creation, rather than elements per se. Second, the same chart is slightly off with regard to Exhibit 10.1, in the sense that sub-box containing the terms, "beween competent parties involving lawful subject matter". In the Exhibit the box is shown as a shared characteristic of both offer and acceptance, showing that this is an essential characteristic that must exist under both the offer and acceptance stage. In the presentation, it is shown only under the offer stage. Indeed this seems a small issue, but to be technically correct, should have been more accurate. Lastly, under the list of circumstances when "a contract may be voided" under slide 6, the last point states that "lawful-not violating state, federal, or common law". This is in effect contradicting the topic at hand, because it states that a contract may be voided because it is lawful, when it should state that a contract is valid when it does not violate law. What did you learn most about this topic that was unclear or unknown before Contract law is always a multi-faceted topic, and states a number of new concepts and principles. This presentation helped me understand more of the definitions of the characteristics within the contract's creation, such as negotiation, offer and acceptance, and consideration. Were any of your questions about this topic left unanswered If so, what are they There were some unanswered questions, which I stated above, relating to the aspects of sales in the presentation. Especially since the topic was sales contracts, the presenter could have economized more on time by minimizing the discussion on contracts and focusing more on sales. *Adapted from Reinking, J. A., Hart, A. W., & Von der Osten, R. (2003). Strategies for successful writing: A rhetoric, research guide, reader, and handbook (6th ed.). Boston: Prentice-Hall/Pearson Custom Publishing.

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Gender section 3 - Essay Example The author pointed in her writing that human security should deal with both gender and militarization. I did not believe the militarization could affect the role of gender in the society or create discrimination. However, after reading the first two sections of the book, I started to realize that military power plays a significant role when it comes to gender and most of the human security issues and concerns are because of military power. 3. Human security is an approach that focuses on the security and the safety of the people and the communities instead of states. It also allows us to identify various kind of violence, including cultural and structural violence; and how these are related to gender especially women (197). 4. Colonization can affect citizen identity and change the way a specific society was created. Indeed, most people, who suffer colonization or a series of civil war, even though they gain independent they still suffer from insecurity and the fear of being colonize d again. In fact, most people experience trauma and the unfoldings of the past conflicts bring them sad memories, which might lead to depression. 5. Most countries exist in a militarized sphere, where people live with polices and law that are created by a fraction of people, who mostly have higher privilege and power than normal citizens. In addition, most of the laws that are enacted by the few people in society are forced on normal citizens, and they have to accept and adhere to them without questioning the authority. Indeed, in some societies, the people, who are confident enough to question the authority and power, are viewed as terrorist and a source of corruption. 6. When caregiving institutions are militarized, most of the people who work there are women. However, these do not receive any significant form of support. 7. Culture governance, patriarchy, and militarization define gender violence. These are among the major aspects that can be considered as root of gender violence . 8. Militarization and militarized mentalities is not always a direct violence. This is because it can start with structural violence. 9. Women in the Pacific point out that the major causes of conflict in the region are linked to gender inequality and inequality. The most form of inequality in this case is the unequal distribution of resources between men and women in society. For instance, in wealth distribution, men get to benefit the most, as compared to their female counterparts. It is a pity to see women suffering from this kind of discrimination. In fact, it makes me think about the nature of marriage in such countries, considering that men are the main cause of oppression to women. Then it is surprising how marriage can survive in such scenarios, as the institution of marriage involves the relationship between husband and wife, and father and daughters. Nonetheless, it is more saddening that the men in such countries do not participate in the promotion of the rights of wome n. 10. The resolution 1325 by the UN that called for the involvement of more women in the community structure did not affect the Pacific women at a significant measure. In my opinion, I believe that creating laws and announcing them to the public and asking other governments to adhere to them in their functions does not always work. Instead of creating all these laws and policies, the United Nation and other organization should work on understanding the history and the roots of

Confirmation Names vs. Carpathia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Confirmation Names vs. Carpathia - Essay Example Vicky chooses the name Barbara after letting a boy read her palm; St Barbara is described as the "patron saint of those in danger of sudden death." The legend of Saint Barbara begins when her faith in Christianity strengthens; her father becomes furious and beheads her. Soon after, a lightning bolt strikes down her father. This event led to her being canonized a saint, who grants protection in time of danger from thunderstorms, fires, and sudden death. Saint Barbara is commonly characterized as standing by a tower with three windows, carrying the palm of a martyr in her hand. Lippo's choice of saints' names for each of his characters is a symbol of their personalities. In Kercheval's "Carpathia", there is an ironic reference in relation to the Titanic ship. The icy water symbolizes the relationship between the father and the mother in reversed roles. The first note of this reversal is observed when the survivors are mostly women and children, and "only 2 sailors for each boat." In the second paragraph, it is glaring how the father feels, as he "stood looking at the icy water where, if he had been on the other ship, he would be." The father then proceeds to exclaim his choice of what he would have done if he were on the boat, as he exclaims, "They should have put the men in the lifeboats." The mother, disturbed, "was the one drowning." Both short stories reflect internal conflicts. At first in Lippo's "Confirmation", the characters reflect themselves with the saints on the outside. However, the internal workings go much deeper. The woods represent the things "off-limits" to the nuns, but to the characters (both the saints and children) to them it is their own sanctuary. The Saints had all suffered martyrdom. Carpathia's the internal conflict presented in the relationship with the mother and father. Both of them are disgusted with their choices and the events that had taken place. However, if the roles were to be reversed, according to the wish of the father, mother and her unborn child would not have survived, for "She was pregnant" and it felt like "she was the one drowning." The father would rather have them be in the icy waters and he be saved. The conflicts are resolved. This is because in Lippo's, the conflict is resolved in the lasting closing paragraph about Magdalene, who was the secret patron whose spirit, they believed, watches over them from the trees. The characters involvement with the saints and the church, the forest and themselves, provides them a sanctuary. From the very beginning, the nuns had made the woods "off-limits" and "Magdalene, the whore." Nevertheless, the characters went into the woods, even before mass because "She was the saint who turned the flesh Divine." The confirmation was not a mere event to give names but a sacramental event in both the woods and the church, which both "studied the saints." The conflict is not resolved in Carpathia. There are many emotional events taking place at the same time. The father had openly expressed his choice that the mother should have drowned. "Confirmation Names," and "Carpathia" seem to be stories of two extreme opposites; they are closely linked to unearth a similar central conflict. Confirmation signify's new beginning, a life of prospects and adventure whilst Carpathia

Customer relationship management CRM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Customer relationship management CRM - Essay Example In this study, the key marketing principles of Primark will be evaluated. Product: - Most of the company’s merchandise of the company is manufactured by the company itself. The company specializes in menswear, childrenswear, womenswear and home-decor products. Some of the bestselling products of the company are footwear, accessories & hosiery, lingerie, and cosmetics. Most of the brands sold by the company are their own brand. Some of renowned ones are Atmosphere, Denim Co., Secret Possessions, Ocean Club, Backswing, Early Days and Rebel among others (Primark, 2013). With wide range of products, the company caters to customers of different segment. Distribution: - Alongside the importance of developing a sound product strategy, the development of distribution strategy is equally important (Bose, 2010). Moreover, for a company involved in apparel retailing, the importance of distribution is more (Dent, 2011). The success of the company is greatly dependent upon the distribution strategy pursued by the firm. Knowing the importance of distribution, Primark have also developed distribution strategy that ensures delivery of the products at the right place and right time. The company has appointed stockiest at different place of the country, where the company stores their manufactured products. One of the interesting facts is that most of the stock points are extremely close to the retailing outlets. This has allowed the company to make wide variety products available within the store (Michaels, 2010). Apart from the physical distribution, the company also markets their products through online store (primarkonlinestore, 2013). As a result of that the company has been able to streamline their distribution method. Pricing: - Likewise, product and distribution, the pricing strategy adopted by a firm is critical towards the revenue generated by the company as well as the profit earned (Kotler, 2010). In this turbulent business environment, companies have no other option but to maintain a steady profitability in order to sustain for a longer period of time (Craven, 2012; Dransfield, 2004). The pricing strategy adopted by the firm is cost plus pricing method, in which the company fixes the product prices on the basis of the cost incurred for producing one unit of the product. However, at some cases the company also pursues competitive pricing strategy for the sole purpose of dealing effectively with the competitors in terms of price-war. On the other hand, when the company makes it presence in a new market, it usually follows penetration strategy. Despite, the presence of strong brands, the company has kept the prices affordable in order to ensure customers from every section of the society can afford their apparels. Segmentation: - Segmentation is a process by which companies divide the market into different segments. It involves division of the target market into small subsets by considering the common needs of the consumers (McDonald and Du nbar, 1995). A company segments its market on the basis of different factors such as geographic segmentation, behavioural segmentation, psychographic segmentation, segmentation by occasions and segmentation by benefits (Alshorbagy and Elsaman, 2011). In the similar way, Primark divides its overall market into distinct markets. The principal reason for undertaking segmentation strategy is

Political Economy of Japan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Political Economy of Japan - Essay Example After Taisho era, it was the economic downturn which helped in the emergence of militarists: In the history of Japan, The Taisho era is mostly from the year of 1912 till the year 1926. Within this era, the political power shifted from the hands of the elder statesmen to the democratic parties and the Diet of Japan. Consequently, the era is known as the time for liberal movement in Japan. Politically, Japan moved towards larger emblematic government. The minimum tax qualification for the voters had been reduced to enfranchise more voters and consequently was eradicated in the year 1925. The democratic environment flourished with the pass of the legislation which was in favor of labors. During this Taisho era, Japan has been able to enjoy the parliamentary government based on British model. The period started with the Hara cabinet and end with fall of Wakatsuki cabinet. During this short span of time Japanese statesmen had tried hard to eliminate war as the instrument to the national p olicy. Japan co-operated in the peace between nations. In the year 1921, the four power including United States, Japan, Britain and France agreed to recognize status quo in Pacific region. These nations had agreed not to interfere in China while it was trying to build a stable government within the country. Japan also made a noticeable contribution by withdrawing its troops from Shandong. This picture was supposed to continue until the economic downturn hit the Japan economy. That time only, militants accused the politicians for being failure to Meiji restoration and consequently called for the change in the country’s policy. As the economy in Japan worsened more, military advocacy gained its popularity. Eventually that resulted in Japan’s aggression in 1930.

Vail-Colorado Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Vail-Colorado - Research Paper Example In 1992 Apollo Partners purchased Vail Associates, which in turn became Vail Resorts Inc., which was followed by the acquisition of ski resorts Keystone and Breckenridge. The acquisition of these ski resorts was a major change that helped Vail succeed in the long run by appealing to a broader market. Both Keystone and Breckenridge have lower prices than Vail Mountain, and attract more single- and college-aged customers (Vail Resorts). The company then added the Real Estate segment which comprised 6 percent of the company's total revenues in 2004. Mountain revenues account for 69 percent, and revenues from lodging activities account for the remaining 25 percent. Having these additional revenues allowed Vail to establish itself and provide a greater level of customization to its guests. Owning a house on the mountain allowed skiers to visit more frequently during the winter season, as well as have a getaway during the summer season (Vail Resorts). Vail owns four different ski resorts in Colorado, a resort in Lake Tahoe California, as well as a summer resort in Grand Teton. Along with these six resorts, Vail owns Rock Resorts which is a management company that "manages 10 luxury resort hotels across the United States" (Vail Resorts). Vail Resorts offers a complete package to the vacationer of all ages... The majority of Vail Resort's visitors are there for the challenging ski terrain and the top quality service. Vail offers some of the most challenging ski terrain Colorado has and offers instructional courses for beginning to expert skiers. Select resorts have begun offering instructional ski lessons for select individuals. Classes such as: over the age of 50 only, female only, and kids Ski Zone packages have been implemented to provide the skier a more comfortable learning experience. They have recently started to offer amenities that fit the eye of the snowboarders dream. Many of the resort now offer snowboarder parks that include rails, pipes, jumps, terrain parks, and much more. For the person that prefers not to ski for the day, other activities are offered that allow them to enjoy the great outdoors without hitting the slopes. Activities such as ice skating, tubing, ski biking, snowshoeing, snowmobile tours, hiking trails, golf courses, hot-air balloon rides, and even a kid's s nowmobile racetrack has been added to the list for the visitor's pleasure. (Snow, 2005) Many indoor activities are offered at Vail Resorts as well. The most enjoyable indoor attraction is the many shopping areas the various resorts have to offer. There is a variety of shops where you can find gifts, souvenirs, jewelry, art, clothing, and much more. Other activities Vail Resorts offer will include museums, comedy shows, health spas, amphitheaters, arcades, indoor ice skating, bowling, and a variety of night clubs and bars. (Snow, 2005) Vail Resorts targets the consumer that trends more towards the upper class in society. These customers are willing and able to pay the top price in the industry to get

Josephs Story Essay Example for Free

Josephs Story Essay Joseph’s story is a common one of an unsuspected massive heart attack. Even though Joseph had numerous existing factors that put him at risk of heart conditions he continued to live with no fear, or ambition to make changes. While playing ball with his son in the park, Joseph experienced his worst case scenario, a massive heart attack. There were several elements that went into this clinical turn for the worst. Joseph’s heart could now have irreversible damage due to the advanced stage of the condition. When Joseph’s heart stopped working in the park the cells that make up the heart started to use up the remaining ATP that was left in the cells. Because there was no heart function to push oxygenated blood through the vessels the carbon dioxide levels started to increase and PH levels dropped within the cell. The heart was no longer providing blood flow with the rich oxygen and glucose to the mitochondria, which is needed for the production of ATP. Without ATP it was only a matter of a few moments before the active transport pumps in the plasma membrane had stopped. This seize of activity had now allowed for sodium to begin leaking out of the cells and potassium to leak in. Joseph’s lungs could no longer expel harmful carbon dioxide from his body, or bring important oxygen in. Cells were dying. As Joseph lay in the park his son was crying and calling for help. Lucky for them both, some people were nearby who ran to ran to their aid. As one person called for help, another person started CPR on Joseph’s heart. CPR allowed for fresh oxygen to reach his cells and with every chest compression more carbon dioxide was expelled from his body. However, Joseph’s cells were still unable to produce ATP and the structure of the cells were being compromised to say the least. The lack of ATP also meant that special calcium ATPases had stopped moving calcium from the cytosol into endoplasmic reticulum of his cardiac muscle cells. As the intracellular calcium levels rose within the cells, they caused proteases to spill into their interiors of the cell, attacking the cytoskeleton. Lysosomal enzymes as well as mitochondrial organelles are usually contained by membranes or vesicles. A lot of a cell does it contained within that membrane. When a cell starts to die the first to start seize is the membrane, exchanging nothing intentional, but leaking nutrients in and out. The instructions Joseph’s body needs to repair itself and his disposition for vascular disease are both contained within the cell, inside DNA, located in the nucleolus. As the intracellular calcium levels rose, they caused proteases to spill into the interior of the cell, attacking the cytoskeleton. Lysosmal enzymes normally bound safely inside vesicles began to digest the plasma membrane and the membranes of the organelles. Oxygen is required by cells to produce ATP, oxygen, and nutrients, multiple cellular processes affecting hemostasis. Joseph was not treating his body with the care it needed. As a result the cells in his body reacted in a damaging way. Health and disease are ultimately determined at the cellular level.

Exploring a Communication in Arabic Lingua Culture Essay Example for Free

Exploring a Communication in Arabic Lingua Culture Essay Conversation is the most basic form of communication and human beings rely on conversation to exchange information and maintain social relationships (Gardner 1994: 97). Human interactions rely on conversation for simple chatting as well as work related tasks, political discussions and educational decisions (Gardner 1994: 98). Conversation is at the heart of the human ability to interact with one another in everyday life. Communicative events typically involve definable boundaries and a joint effort at interaction (Orr 2008: 317). A communicative event that occurs within its social boundaries becomes an engagement between two people (Orr 2008: 317). In other words, a communicative event between two friends results in an engagement that has meaning to both parties involved. In contrast, a communicative event that is between two strangers, such as a shopper and salesperson, cannot be considered an engagement because when the encounter is over it holds no meaning to those involved (Orr 2008: 317). Further, a communicative event is only successful when both parties involved contribute to the process of understanding as the conversation takes place (Aune, Levine, Park, Asada, Banas 2005: 358). In a communicative event between friends, each friend is responsible for contributing something to the conversation that will make the interaction meaningful for both people. When both friends are not contributing to the communicative event equally, then the encounter fails to have meaning and makes the person who is contributing view his or her friend negatively (Aune, et al 2005: 358). An analysis of a communicative event that occurred between two friends in Saudi Arabia is offered. This analysis includes a discussion of the eleven components that Saville-Troike identifies. The Communicative Event Cultural analysis is an important part of discussing linguistics and communication. However, linguistics is not typically associated with a cultural analysis even though the conversation styles and traditions of different cultures are an essential component to communicative events (Wierzbicka 1997: 1). In fact, there is a very close link between culture and the lexicon of the language spoken as part of that culture. This is why many cultures rely on special words for important aspects of their culture such as food (Wierzbicka 1997: 1). Additionally, many cultures, such as the Arabic culture, rely on special greetings and phrases as part of their communicative events. These special greetings and phrases add depth to the communicative events and allow them to have meaning to the people involved. The conversation analyzed for this paper occurred between two friends and included a special greeting as well as common phrases used in Saudi Arabian culture. These components of the communicative event allowed the interaction to mean something to the two friends and resulted in positive feelings from both. The definition of a communicative event and a consideration to cultural differences is particularly useful for language teachers because it gives them insight into the importance of specific aspects of communicative events that differ across cultural boundaries. Language teachers are most successful when they are able to incorporate aspects of native language into new language acquisition. Changing the way that language teachers instruct is a constant part of the job of language teachers (Jacobs Farrell 2003: 5). At the same time, it is important that a language teacher give students the tools necessary for learner autonomy, understanding the social nature of learning, the ability for curricular integration, a focus on meaning, attention to diversity, thinking skills, assessment and utilizing the teacher as a co learner (Jacobs Farrell 2003: 5). These eight skills are essential for language teachers to implement in order to allow students to rely on their native language while also learning a new language. Further, sensitivity to cultural differences in language style will allow the language teacher to provide students with authentic opportunities to engage in meaningful communicative events. At the same time, language teachers cannot choose to only implement one or two of these components. They are all necessary components to successful language instruction. Classroom language instruction is an important part of the job of a language teacher. However, the type of language instruction has an impact on how well students acquire language skills (Spada 1987: 137). A study of three separate language classrooms over a period of sixty observation hours shows that students are sensitive to the communicative orientation of new language acquisition (Spada 1987: 137). The reason behind this observation is the different communicative styles utilized by different cultures. For example, the special greeting and phrases used the in conversation to be analyzed here differ from the style of communication in other cultures. Therefore, sensitivity to different communicative styles may result in better instruction and higher levels of learning. The ability to improve in the speaking, listening and discourse areas of language learning seem to be related to classroom instruction style (Spada 1987: 137). When a language teacher begins to work with a specific location, the first step is to study the community that will make up the instructional population. This is important so the language teacher is able to gather important information about the social organization and important aspects of the culture in order to relate that information to the culture (Saville-Troike 1989: 107). At the same time, it is important for language teachers to discover the way that native speakers structure their communicative events in order to gain insight into the importance of different communication components important to that specific culture (Saville-Troike 1989: 107). Ultimately, the goal of a language teacher would be to make many careful and thorough observations of native speakers engaging in a variety of different communicative events so a complete understanding of communication can be gathered. Once this job is completed the language teacher should be able to model communicative events after the communicative events of native speakers (Saville-Troike 1989: 107). To this end, Saville-Troike introduces eleven components that will each be commented on as they relate to the communicative example used in this paper: type of event, topic, purpose or function, setting, key, participants, message form, message content, act sequence, rules for interaction and norms for interaction (1989: 138). Type of Event, Topic, Purpose and Setting The type of event, topic, purpose and setting make up the scene of the communicative event (Saville-Troike 1989: 139). The type of event analyzed is an informal conversation between two university friends who have not seen or spoken to one another for a week. The topic of the conversation is the time that has gone by without speaking or seeing one another and includes a discussion about why so much time has passed as well as plans to spend time together in the near future. The purpose of the communicative event is time for the friends to catch up with one another and make plans to engage in further conversation. Finally, the setting for the communicative event is Abha City in the Southern Province of Saudi Arabia. These four components of this specific communicative event make up the whole scene. While only the setting can be directly observed, the type of event, the topic and the purpose of this communicative event are equally as important for gathering information about the cultural aspects of Arabic linguistics and conversation style (Saville-Troike 1989: 139). Further cultural information can be obtained by observing the traditions and customs of a specific culture with regards to communication. This communicative event occurred between two friends and included the special greeting, â€Å"Peace be upon you† and â€Å"peace be upon you too. † This greeting is an essential aspect of Arabic communicative events and means that there is goodwill among the two friends. If this greeting would have been omitted from the conversation it would indicate that the friends were angry with one another. When analyzing components of a communicative event that are not directly visible it is important to be watching for important information regarding the sacred nature of communication and what that looks like for different cultures (Saville-Troike 1989: 141). For example, in this communicative event between two friends, an observer cannot see what the type of event or what the purpose of the event is. However, listening to the conversation and watching for customs and traditions provides valuable insight into the nature of cultural differences and what is important (Saville-Troike 1989: 141). These observations will allow an observer to discover what is sacred to a culture with regards to communication as well as what types of beliefs are important to them. Further, an observer can learn what behaviors are unacceptable, what the purpose of particular behaviors are and see external signs of participation in ritual parts of a communicative event (Saville-Troike 1989: 141). Key The key of a communicative event is introduced in order to provide the tone, manner or spirit of the encounter (Saville-Troike 1989: 141). This can take the form of teasing versus seriously discussing something, being sincere versus sarcastic, being friendly versus hostile or being sympathetic versus threatening (Saville-Troike 1989: 141). The type of key that is present in a communicate event relies on the type of relationship the people involved in conversation have. In this case, the communicative event was informal, but respectful and was a sincere and friendly exchange between two friends. However, if the conversation took a sarcastic key, the sarcasm would have overridden the sincerity of the interaction thus making the conversation far less meaningful than it was (Saville-Troike 1989: 142). In this way, the strongest key takes center stage and is determined by who the participants of the communicate event are, what their relationship as well as the nature of the conversation. Further, the key of the communicative event may be determined through the use of nonverbal cues in addition to the dialogue. For example, if one person winks at the other this may suggest some teasing during the conversation while a stiff posture may indicate that a serious conversation is occurring (Saville-Troike 1989: 142). Observing the communicative event that is analyzed here, the nonverbal cues may have included changes in facial expression when the friends began to discuss why one friend had been to busy to spend time with friends. Watching these facial expressions would lend insight into how serious or friendly the communicative event really was. Participants The participants are the most important component of a communicative event. Without participants, conversation would never happen. The participants in this communicative event were two young male university friends. The absence of females indicates the nature of gender roles in the Saudi Arabian culture. In the Arabic culture, males are not permitted to meet with females and are only allowed to converse with other males. This information provides important information regarding the role relationship of conversation in Saudi Arabia as well as information about sex and social status (Saville-Troike 1989: 143). The absence of females provides a great deal of information about the Arabic culture. It shows what the rights of each member of society are as well as the attitudes, expectations and behaviors toward others. It also shows who has authority over whom (Saville-Troike 1989: 143). This communicative event shows that males are the dominant gender in Saudi Arabian culture and this prevents them from openly conversing with females. Further, it gives insight into the attitudes, expectations and behaviors expected from males versus females. Finally, the culture dictates the formality or informality of a communicative event (Saville-Troike 1989: 144). This exchange between two young male friends was informal as compared to a conversation that may take place between a young Arab male and an older Arab male. In other words, the participants engaging in conversation have a direct influence over the nature of the communicate event and dictate what type of interaction will take place. Message Form Message form, message content and act sequence are determined by various social, cultural and situational constraints on communicative behavior. Each of these components can be presented vocally or non vocally (Saville-Troike 1989: 144). Many cultures rely on non vocal sounds to represent meaning in conversation and these make up the message form. These vocal and non vocal sounds make up the verbal and non verbal components of conversation style. For example, the verbal vocal relationship includes spoken language while the non verbal vocal relationship includes such things as laughter. Similarly, the non vocal verbal relationship is comprised of such things as written language or sign language while the non vocal non verbal relationship includes such things as silence and eye behavior (Saville-Troike 1989: 145). Although these different aspects of language vary across cultures, they are important aspects of any communication style. This communicative event example used here relies on these different relationships in order to allow the participants to engage in a conversation that has meaning to both parties. The two friends engaged in the verbal vocal relationship simply by exchanging spoken dialogue. At the same time, they engaged in the non verbal vocal relationship by relying on laughter to become part of their conversation. They also relied on the non vocal verbal relationship through the use of hand gestures and facial expressions that lent support to the nature of the conversation and also injected meaning into the exchange. Finally, the two friends showed the non vocal non verbal relationship through their use of appropriate silences and eye contact while speaking to one another. Message Content The message content is closely related to message form and cannot be separated for appropriate analysis to occur (Saville-Troike 1989: 150). Message content refers to what communicative acts are about and what meaning they hold. The dialogue and silences of a communicate event make up the message form while the meaning and implications derived from the communicative event make up the message content (Saville-Troike 1989: 150). The overall meaning of a communicate event rely on the verbal and non verbal messages being exchanged. However, meaning is also derived from extra linguistic context as well as information and expectations participants bring to the conversation (Saville-Troike 1989: 150). The physical content of a communicative event is important because it lends additional information to the exchange that allows for enhanced meaning. In this way, people who do not even speak the same language are often able to find meaning in their exchange simply be relying on physical objects or other outside influences that inject meaning without words (Saville-Troike 1989: 151). Whatever type of physical objects, outside influences or even hand gestures that are used during a communicative event it is important that they convey meaning and allow for a successful conversation. The example of a conversation used here was successful because the two friends understood the location they were in as well as the gestures each person used during the course of the communicative event. Act Sequence The act sequence component of a communicative event includes information about the ordering of the conversation. This is evident through the appropriate initiation of conversation by one person and the following of that initiation by the other person (Saville-Troike 1989: 152 153). The example provided here is a good example of appropriate initiation. One of the young men starts the conversation by saying, â€Å"peace be upon you† and the other man responded with, â€Å"peace be upon you too. † In Saudi Arabian culture this is an important greeting and indicates friendship and goodwill at the start of a conversation. Eliminating this greeting would suggest anger and would upset the natural ordering of conversations in Arabic culture (Saville-Troike 1989: 153). Regular patterns and recurring events are important cultural component of communicative events. When participants follow these patterns and recurring events it suggests that the nature of conversations is important and sacred within a culture. Further, the types of patterns that emerge from these patterns and recurring events allow for comparison across cultures (Saville-Troike 1989: 153 154). The conversation between the two young Arabic students followed a natural progression and provided important insight into the nature of communicative events in Arabic culture. Rules for Interaction The rules of interaction dictate an explanation for the rules of speech which are applicable to communicative event in a specific culture (Saville-Troike 1989: 154). These rules refer to the way that the participants in the conversation are expected to behave based on the values of their culture (Saville-Troike 1989: 154). Again, the special greeting at the start of this conversation is one example of an expectation for behavior. In Arabic culture, this is the standard greeting that comes at the beginning of a communicative event and Arabic males are expected to make use of it. These rules may not necessarily be dictated by law but are used based on values that are important within a specific culture (Saville-Troike 1989: 154). Arabic law does not require this greeting at the start of a conversation, but the values and beliefs of the Arabic culture make the greeting an expectation. Further, the use of this greeting indicates the role of turn taking in conversation within the Arabic culture. The initial greeting is followed by a follow up greeting which allows the participants to take turns greeting one another and starting a conversation. At the same time, turn taking is important in this example of a communicative event because it allows each young man to have a turn speaking while the other young man listens. This injects meaning into the conversation because the interaction relies on listening skills as well as speaking skills to get the point across (Saville-Troike 1989: 155). Norms of Interpretation Norms of interpretation are important because they provide all of the other information about the culture. These are essential for the overall understanding of the communicative event (Saville-Troike 1989: 155). For example, the different types of speech must be analyzed in order to fully understand cultural differences within a conversation. This example of the communicative event used here includes the use of the phrase, â€Å"old man. † In some cultures this may a derogatory phrase but is included in this example to show respect. In Arabic culture using the term â€Å"old man† shows respect for one’s elders and the young men use it in reference to one of their fathers. The understanding that this phrase shows respect is well known within the Arabic culture so it becomes a norm of conversation that is acceptable (Saville-Troike 1989: 155). Conclusion The development of communicative competence cannot take place without a relationship among these eleven components (Lock 1983: 253). Contexts rely on cultural information in order to provide an interplay of conversation as well as the self concepts of the participants and social structure acceptable within a society (Lock 1983: 253). A relationship among these eleven components can lead to successful communicative competence based on the cultural implications of language and how this relates to self concept and social structure (Lock 1983: 253). This can be directly applied to the language teacher because communicative competence is a cornerstone of successful language acquisition (Lee 2006: 349). Further, successful communicative events are only possible if a language teacher is able to blend the cultural components of the native language with the cultural components of the new language (Holliday 1997: 212). Therefore, an understanding of communicative competence is an essential part of successful language instruction (Lee 2006: 349). Communicative competence is the part of language knowledge that dictates which communicative system to use (Stalker 1989: 182). When the communicative system chosen is spoken language or conversation it is important to connect the goals and context of the situation in order to have a meaningful communicative event (Stalker 1989: 182). A basic understanding of what communication abilities are necessary for successful conversation within a specific culture is necessary to function adequately in society (Wiemann Backlund 1980: 185). Therefore, the eleven components applied to a specific conversation example provide evidence and insight into the importance of language teachers enabling students to gain the knowledge the learning necessary in order to successfully participate in communicative encounters (Wiemann Backlund 1980: 185; Gardner 1994: 104). To this end, it is important to provide students with knowledge pertaining to the use of key words within a particular culture (Wierzbicka 1997: 6) as well as analyze the importance of the relationship between the eleven components of language (Saville-Troike 1989: 156). Finally, the overall outcome of communication is to discover the unique events and recurring patterns within a specific culture (Saville-Troike 1989: 177). This can only be done through careful observation and analysis of communicative events within a particular culture (Saville-Troike 1989: 177). Aune, R. K. ; Levine, T. R. ; Park, H. ; Asada, K. K. ; Banas, J. A. 2005. Tests of a theory of communicative responsibility. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 24 (4): 358 – 381. Gardner, R. 1994. Conversation analysis: some thoughts on it applicability to applied linguistics. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, Series S (11): 97 – 118. Holliday, A. 1997. Six lessons: cultural continuity in communicative language teaching. Language Teaching Research, 1 (3): 212 – 238. Jacobs, G. M. Farrell, T. S. C. 2003. Understanding and implementing the CLT paradigm. RELC Journal, 34 (1): 5 – 30. Lee, Y. 2006. Towards respectification of communicative competence: condition of L2 instruction or its objective? Applied Linguistics, 27 (3): 349 – 376. Lock, A. 1983. Communicative contexts and communicative competence. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 2 (2-3-4): 253 – 266. Orr, W. W. R. 2008. ‘Prospecting an encounter’ as a communicative event. Discourse Studies, 10 (3): 317 – 339. Saville-Troike, M. 1989, The analysis of communicative events, in The Ethnography of Communication: An Introduction, 2nd edn, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 107-180. Spada, N. M.1987. Relationships between instructional differences and learning outcomes: a process-product study of communicative language teaching. Applied Linguistics, 8 (2): 137 – 161. Stalker, J. C. 1989. Communicative competence, pragmatic functions, and accommodation. Applied Linguistics, 10 (2): 182 – 193. Wiemann, J. M. Backlund, P. 1980. Current theory and research in communicative competence. Review of Educational Research, 50 (1): 185 – 199. Wierzbicka, A. 1997, Introduction, in Understanding Cultures Through Their Key Words, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 1-31.